An Exploration of Feminist Thought and its Application Within the Multimedia Technology Curriculum

 © Fionn Ross, 1999

This paper is a reflection on the use of teaching and learning strategies in the context of teaching multimedia technology to degree students. I will attempt to present a clear understanding of the issues facing the industry, the use of particular teaching and learning strategies, make use of appropriate theory to underpin points made within the paper, and also reflect on and evaluate my own professional performance. My particular influences are taken from Truong (1993), who discusses in detail the problems of gender and technology, with particular reference to cyberspace; and Zukas (1997), who challenges us to think about the impact of feminism and women’s studies with regard to the study of adult education. While I am pro-feminist, I am not a cultural theorist, but a technologist. Besides this, I am black (I use the word in its political sense and as a signifier – I am really a seventh generation Scot!) and gay, and, therefore, any discussion about the impact of feminism and women’s studies can be made in parallel with other disadvantaged groups. 

The Information Technology (IT) industry in the UK is experiencing a shortage of skills. The Government estimates that there are as many as 75,000 vacancies waiting to be filled. On a world-wide scale, the figure is in excess of 300,000. 

'Convincing young people that a career in information technology does not involve wearing an anorak to work is one of the key tasks facing a new group (the National Information Technology, Electronics and Communications Skills Strategy Group) set up to address the sector's skills needs'. (Brackets mine.)

Times Educational Supplement, 5^th March 1999

The employment issue is particularly pertinent, because the IT industry is dominated by white, middle-class males. There are very few women worldwide who own successful IT companies. One example is Esther Dyson, president and owner of EDventure Holdings, a small but diversified company focused on emerging information technology worldwide.

According to the TES, the number of women in IT is now much lower than in the late 1970s - at about 24% - and is continuing to fall. Women are more likely to be found teaching IT skills such as word-processing in schools and colleges rather than being employed in industry.

MIT’s Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Technical Report 1315, authored by Spertus (1991), identified that ‘in 1990, only 13% of PhDs (in the US) in computer science went to women, and only 7.8% of computer science professors were female’ (brackets mine). Several reasons have been offered in the research literature, such as sexual bias in language, access to technology itself, and working in male-dominated environments. These reasons will be explored further in this paper.

The creative industries, particularly media, are experiencing a boom. In fact, they are the fastest growing sector, and the highest contributor to the country's gross national product (GNP), surpassing even the motor and steel industries.

Multimedia is a rapidly growing area within the information technology arena. It has its roots in the television and film industries (and even precedes the computer industry) and is used within many areas such as education, music, and politics. It is the combination of text, graphic images, animation, video images, and sound in a digital environment. The industry is presently experiencing a convergence of IT, print publishing and electronic media due to the growing digitisation of information. Multimedia offers immense opportunities for women because

 In all fields, but especially in information technology, the strict separation between the technical and the creative has in fact been made redundant by digital images and the skills required by computer-aided design. The new alliance between the previously segregated domains of the technical and the artistic marks a contemporary version of the post-humanistic reconstruction of a techno-culture whose aesthetics is equal to its technological sophistication. (Braidotti, 1996).

Statistics for women in the multimedia industry are estimated to be 40% of the overall IT workforce, according one source at the British Interactive Multimedia Association (BIMA). To make comparisons using the latest government statistics is problematic since they are collected and grouped within groups of industries, for example, one group includes paper, pulp, printing, publishing and recording media. It is also rather unclear what is meant by ‘recording media’. Is this recording media as in the music/CD/multimedia industry, or is this recording media as in the media industry of TV and radio as we know it?

Nevertheless, given that the general ratio of women to men is 40:60 (although in publishing the ratio is usually much higher), we might be able to get a picture of women’s employment in these fields. As of November 1998, according to the Labour Market Survey, 468,000 people were employed in the previously mentioned group. The number of women? 187,200. In another group identified as ‘renting, research, computer, and other business activities’, 3.03 million people were employed as of the third quarter of 1998. This means, using the above ratio that the number of women would be 1.212 million.

Before the invention of the typewriter, women were always excluded from the development and use of technology: the printing press, television, the automobile, etc. When these inventions had to be marketed, however, women were ‘useful’ with respect to their sex appeal to men. Many of these inventions emphasised strength and Western/First World notions of masculinity. The arrival of the word-processor, the microchip, and the subsequent growth in service sector industries has all but eradicated the masculinist manufacturing sector, enabling women to take a role hitherto denied them to participate fully in the workplace. Barker and Downing (1987), in discussing female resistance and patriarchal relations in the office with the advent of the word-processor, identified what they considered to be the ‘real’ purpose of the automated office. The revolution that took place as a result of this ‘non-neutral’ technology resulted in the replacement of traditional forms of patriarchal control, moving towards the ‘real subordination of office workers’. Hence, Barker and Downing do not see the word-processor as a liberationary instrument, but rather as a tool for capitalists (white, middle-class and male) who wanted cheap labour and increased productivity. Braidotti (1996) graphically raises the notion of capital trading in ‘body fluids: the cheap sweat and blood of the disposable workforce throughout the third world’.

Truong (1993) identifies several issues which need to be addressed with regard to the development and use of new media technologies by women. These are access, employment in IT, the development of user-friendly interfaces, the perceived usefulness of the new technologies, social interactions and online harassment.

In terms of access, political decisions have been taken to address accessibility to the much-touted Information Superhighway and the National Grid for Learning was launched in the spring of 1998. The theory behind this development is that all schools in the UK should be connected to the Internet. This is seen as a response to the US’ plans to connect the country to the Information Superhighway. If US statistical information is indicative of women’s participation in the online population, it could be said that they only comprise 10 to 15%. In 1993, estimated world-wide usage of the Internet was 30 million. In 1998, the US actual usage figure was estimated at 37 million (as opposed to more vague estimates of between 50 and 70 million. Still 15% of this population is almost insignificant. Other reasons cited for such low involvement include: economic factors (women earn about 40% less than men), and women’s roles in society (seen as homemakers and therefore having little time to learn how to navigate online systems).

Apart from the National Grid for Learning, other initiatives include the Virtual Teacher Centre and the Multimedia Portables for Schools, projects which have been undertaken by the British Educational Communications Technology Association (BECTA), the government-funded body set up to address issues of information and communications technologies in schools. There have been some positive responses to these from female teachers, in particular.

The negative stereotype of the nerd who is socially isolated and only dedicated to computing/programming, etc., is also another deterrent. Truong suggests that ‘women need help overcoming visions of becoming or associating with technology-obssessed nerds’. Research indicates this as a major reason why more women tend to drop out of computer-related studies. They are more likely to go for ‘soft’ courses such as RSA CLAIT where there is more of a female cohort.

Graphical user interfaces were first developed by the Xerox Corporation in the 1970s and seen as a significant improvement on command-line interfaces which have their roots in engineering and the military. They were popularised by Apple Macintosh in the 1980s and are now standard on all PCs with Windows or Mac-based operating systems. However, GUIs (as they are affectionately known) are developed largely by men and are more often than not, system-specific (that is, not designed with humans in mind). Studies into gender have shown that gender impacts perception. Perhaps interfaces which took ‘female’ perceptive skills into account when in development would assist in bringing more women into IT usage and development.

Perception of usefulness is mentioned by Truong as another deterrent for women:

 As Communications Specialist Donna Zelzer explains: "...Look at the automobile. It's expensive, it's mechanical... And, if you make a mistake, you can KILL someone. And of course men make fun of women drivers all the time. Yet despite these obstacles, millions of women own cars and drive them every day. Why? Because they see cars as useful and even necessary to their lifestyles. But most women don't feel this way about computers or going on-line."

Education (as to the benefits of being online) is very much a large part of the job of technical or sales staff. Such benefits include virtual community; the gathering, accessing and disseminating of information at the click of a mouse; and discovering viewpoints not readily available from mass media. The downside of all this that the Internet is becoming increasingly commercialised with the associated costs of going online sometimes rising each year, despite the rise in free Internet services.

Computer science departments, multimedia departments, and relevant workplaces are male-dominated. As with many areas of work, women often find such places uncomfortable and/or unwelcome. They are often the butt of  dirty jokes (whether directly or indirectly), jokes about their driving skills (for example), and they may often be present when men are discussing sex in ways that women find offensive. In general, and with regard to going online, women tend to use language differently from men and they find a whole new world into which they are sometimes harshly initiated. Tannen (1990) argues that the sexes use language for very different and identifies a less direct, more inclusive style, designed to avoid arguments and confrontation, as a more typically female method of communication. Men, on the other hand, use language to preserve independence and negotiate status. Jones’ landmark paper on gossip (1980) concludes from her observations that ‘men pursue a style of interaction based on power, while women pursue a style based on solidarity and support’. In the realm of cyberspace, bulletin boards (BBs), for example, provide an outlet for men, allowing them to express opinions they would not dare to express in a mixed setting where they may feel under pressure to conform to social norms. In addition to this, online communities lack visibility in terms of body language, visual cues and other conventions that are often associated with face-to-face communication. Because of the deterrent of sexism in cyberspace, women are creating their own spaces in cyberspace where they can build solidarity and offer support to each other.

Another practice of BBs and newsgroups is that of ‘flaming’. This is the practice of sending angry email messages and is often used in response to breaches of ‘netiquette’ or to give ‘voice’ to unpopular opinions. The result can be a flame war where there are very few good points made that would be of benefit to users. Yet another deterrent. The general advice for people wanting to get involved in newsgroups is to read the FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions) which are usually at the top of the Web page to ascertain the stage and nature of topics being discussed. There are several Web sites devoted to netiquette, such as the Netiquette Home Page and Netiquette Guidelines. Some researchers see the male desire for dominance in conversations reflected on the Internet, particularly in discussions on Usenet or other newsgroups. Following on from studies conducted by Susan Herring and Margie Wylie, Dale Spender (1995) makes the following conclusion:

Women are being kept out of cyber-communication with an electronic version of interruption and intimidation...Women are being silenced on the net in a number of ways. There is the silence of women who withdraw because they are shocked, fed up, threatened or distressed. Then, too, there is the silence that is imposed – the silence that goes with women not being able to get a word in, prevented from raising the topics that are of concern to them.

The issue of online harassment is one final deterrent. Here women receive invitations and messages of a sexually explicit nature in real-time ‘chats’ (responding to events in the world as they happen) or via e-mail. Since there are fewer women who have access to computer systems of their own, it tends to be the same ones who repeatedly experience these unwelcome attentions. Unsolicited material may be received as a result of signing up to a service (using a female name) and that service may/may not distribute their personal details to other companies. Sexual harassment – particularly in cyberspace - is a relatively new concept in society and women generally have difficulty persuading others to see it as an offence to the person.

Multimedia has its origins in television, film, information technology, and publishing – all male-dominated and all areas of industry where women are stereotyped. The role of the media in the stereotyping of women is not to be underestimated. The media is largely the realm of white, middle-class men who use it to set the agenda for gender politics. Various media theories such as ‘the gaze’ theory (based on Mulvey’s highly influential work, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema [1975]) discuss the audience’s relationship with cinematic texts. Mulvey’s work utilises the concept to explore the power of relations of looking and represents the cinematic gaze as inherently masculine. She argues that males are given priority in American films and the more interesting roles. The women, on the other hand, are given roles that make them objects of the dominant male gaze. Zoonen (1994) identifies the display of women as objects for the male gaze as a ‘core element of western patriarchal culture’. This has implications for audiences from the Freudian view of voyeurism and erotic gazing from a distance to Lacan’s mirror image theory, philosophies that Mulvey drew upon in developing her article. Freud’s theory of the gaze can be encapsulated in the two forms of scopophilia (the basic human sexual drive to look at other human beings) – active and passive – of voyeurism and exhibitionism, respectively. Lacan’s mirror image (or phase, as in psychoanalytical literature) refers to the imaginary perfection of the mirrored child, although at this stage in the child’s development he/she does recognise themselves in the mirror. The child thus moves from recognition to identification with the mirror image as a means of consolidating its completeness. These philosophies of voyeurism and identification would initially appear to contradict each other. However, as Zoonen contends, the conflict is resolved by objectification of the woman for the gaze of the male. The male audience moves from recognition of itself within the viewed frame to identification with the male antagonists; this is often done simultaneously.

Stereotyping of women has persisted in media in all forms, even where women are the antagonists in films and computer games (Pamela Anderson in Tank Girl, and Lara Croft in the Tomb Raider game). While these antagonists are active by nature of the roles they have been assigned (assigned being the operative word), they are also passive in terms of the male gaze. Historically, women have been objects of desire for patriarchy and electronic media such as television advertisements ensure that this desire is ‘satiated’. Women are portrayed either selling ‘men’s products’ or they are promoting domesticity.

Gender differences can be traced to the early years where boys and girls are usually ‘pushed’ into behaving in a certain way by their parents. This conditioning continues throughout school life where teachers’ biases towards boy pupils encourage them to develop computer skills such as programming, while the girls are encouraged to develop ‘soft skills’ for jobs such as personal assistants/secretaries where word-processing and caring skills are required. Research also indicates that teachers tend to reinforce these stereotypes in schools which includes the use of colours that are in favour of boys.

The media also propagates these differences through the advertising of toys. Girls are seen with dolls (although there is Action Man for boys, for example) and the voice-over is done by a female in a soft manner with beautiful harmonies. Boys’ toys are generally advertised using male voices which growl and ‘grunt’ and accompanied by heavy rock music. Even in the design and colour of toys can bias be found. Boys’ toys are dark and angular; Action Man dolls (etc.) tend to be muscular – defining muscularity as signifier of masculine power and its associations of size, strength, power, and violence. Girls’ toys, on the other hand, are more likely to be light (usually pink, or another warm colour), and curvy, with frills – defining femininity as signifier of feminine domesticity and its associations of littleness, weakness, finery, parenthood, care, and powerlessness.

It would appear that women were the earliest inventors of technology, but they are not given their due in the history books (Stanley, 1982). Stanley affirms that because women were in charge of the cooking and farming, for example, they were more likely to have produced the tools – the technology - necessary to carry out their tasks. The first computer program (based on binary code, the foundation for digitalisation) was written by Ada Lovelace. Her contribution was acknowledged by the US Department of Defense in 1979 when the program was named after her. There is some evidence of women who have made significant contributions to the development of technology. With the rise of the Internet and increased use of computer technologies, there has been an increase in the number of groups along with a rising body of literature described as techno-, or cyber-feminist that is seeking to address these and other anomalies discussed.

Cyber-feminism is a branch of feminism that is concerned with the combination of women and technology in the sense that they are using technology as a tool and as a weapon to further their cause. Women are not using technology to further male-dominated capitalist causes but as subversive tools of resistance that go beyond the work environment and the home.

Sadie Plant defines cyber-feminism as ‘an absolutely post-human insurrection - the revolt of an emergent system which includes women and computers, against the world view and material reality of a patriarchy which still seeks to subdue them. This is an alliance of 'the goods' against their masters, an alliance of woman and machines’.

An aspect of techno-feminism (cyber-feminism) involves feminists challenging the very definitions of technological practice (Linn, 1987), one such challenge being science fiction. Linn argues that male and female writers approach science fiction writing very differently. Men refer to human abuses of science and technology, while women refer to men being in control of the technology they abuse and use to destroy humankind. Women writers adopt one of three approaches in the science fiction genre: one approach is the rejection of technology since it is tainted by the control of the male species, and profer alternative technologies where females are more in touch with nature, for example, telepathy. The second approach gives women control. For example, using computers to challenge corporations run by men, or developing techniques to reproduce without men. The third approach offers a Utopia where technology is controlled by men and women equally.

To define feminism nowadays is somewhat difficult, according to Zoonen (1994). She argues quite successfully that feminism, as with other such causes that sought to secure equal rights for the oppressed has moved from the radical to the respectable, albeit still maintaining some element of controversy. The simplest definition would be that feminism is women demanding their full rights as human beings. Discourses within feminism include gaze theory, modes of representation, the struggle for equality/freedom from oppression, gender identity, pornography, motherhood, abortion, and more recently, cyberpunk and cyborg writing where ‘centres of resistance’ are rapidly rising as groups of women use the Internet (and science-fiction writing) as a weapon in their continued struggle for equality and full acceptance.

Zukas (1997) contends that there is a parallel between feminism and women’s studies and the study of adult education. She outlines the similarities between these areas in terms of their commitment to democracy and fairness; the emphasis on knowledge and power relationships; the fight for acceptability; and their identification with grassroots and marginalised organisations and groups. Her conclusions suggest there is a gap in the literature with regard to adult learning and the impacts of feminist thought, and warns of the danger of placing too much emphasis on ‘questions of identity and individualism, selfhood and experience’. To take one of these similarities – the fight for acceptability – Zukas provides a historical account of the struggle to establish feminism as an academic discipline and to identify adult education, whether this should be done within a field of study, or whether it should be defined as a discipline.

Parallels can be drawn with the struggles for racial equality and lesbigay rights wherein can be included the establishment of post-colonial studies and the more recent rise of queer theory as academic disciplines in their own right, albeit under the aegis of cultural studies.

It is useful to identify and distinguish between different types of feminist thought in order to provide a theoretical framework within which cyber-feminism can be discussed. There are three main types: individualist/liberal, socialist/Marxist and radical.

Individualist feminism was concerned with the achievement of equal treatment under just laws. While the movement did not refer to equality in terms of economic and/or social justice, adherents were nonetheless concerned with issues such as prostitution and temperance. On the other hand they promoted ‘self ownership’, a concept whereby women were allowed to choose any lifestyle they wished as long as they did not engage in aggression towards other human beings. Individualists did not impose moral codes on others and they did not believe that government had the answers to social problems.

Socialist feminism grew out of the need to address economic and social justice. It provides a specific blueprint of which social and economic arrangements constitute a just society. Adherents see justice as an end-state at which they will have arrived when it is achieved, without the cultural attachments of white males or capitalism. While individualist feminists restricted themselves to using the force of law to achieve equality, socialist feminists use the power of the state to enforce their version of societal justice. Indeed, Cloake (1999) takes a quite extreme view where she uses the virus – based on Irigay’s discursive strategy of mucosity - as a model to illustrate ‘the performative act of female subjectivity that re-thinks the relation between Self and Other as one of mutual respect and difference. While she agrees that viruses do not respect boundaries or discriminate, she fails to acknowledge in her writing the eventual damage viruses inflict upon their hosts: they eventually destroy them. The question may then be asked: what happens then?

This extreme view may well be linked to the next form of feminism: radical feminism, which draws heavily upon socialist feminism. Radical Feminism sees the oppression of women as fundamental and the most basic form of oppression. All other forms of oppression stem from male dominance. The purpose of this oppression is to obtain psychological ego satisfaction, strength and self-esteem.

Cyber-feminism is merely the internationally recognised technological extension for these conventional groupings of feminisms and provides a forum for women all over the world to meet in order to contest, to express difference and inscribe new subjectivities and identities. The idea of women congregating to plan public campaigns has grown from cell-like groups of women sewing and doing charity work in the first wave of feminism; consciousness-raising in the second wave, through to post-feminists in the third wave. From the writings of Faith Wilding and Sadie Plant (for example), one understands the movement to be a mixture of the mainstream and the anarchistic. The movement has yet to have a fully developed theoretical base, however. Nevertheless, the potential for the exploration of the vast territory of cyberspace with issues relating to separatism, boundary maintenance, territorial identity and feminist subjectivities, is immense. For the moment, it is important to note that, for instance, although the Internet is supposed to obscure physical characteristics, women are finding that gender issues still pursue them. Consequently, when engaging in online communities, they prefer to select ‘gender neutral identities, or refrain from expressing their opinions altogether’ (Truong, 1993).

The Multimedia Technology degree – it could be argued - prepares students for the world of cyberspace, and with particular regard to female students – to be cyber-feminists (whatever camp they fall into: liberal/individualist, socialist/Marxist, or radical). The computing units that I teach are laden with jargon: World Wide Web, multiplexing, multimedia, HTML, VRML, tagging, to name a few. One issue that feminism seeks to address is the use of language. There is a body of work referred to as socio-linguistics. Language is an essential part of the struggle for freedom (Cameron, 1985). It is not only expressed in the use of words that are exclusive, such as generic masculine pronouns; but also in images, that is, representation. In order to meet the language needs of ‘my’ students, I have recommended several books for students to purchase, particularly a dictionary published by Helicon of computing and multimedia terminology. I have also provided a glossary of terms which students can refer to in their spare time or when writing assignments. This glossary may need to be updateable without wasting paper and so could be provided by e-mail with the advice that students save the document to disk and update it when new terms come out.

The students in the Multimedia Technology classes are a near balance of male and females, most of whom have no familiarity with computers, except, perhaps, to do word-processing. This means that they are usually very needy in the initial stages of teaching, and I need to closely monitor their progress on the course. As a teacher/trainer, I am particularly keen to include activities that challenge sexism/gender issues in Information Technology (IT). Multimedia technology is largely a male-dominated field and I would like to be able to address the issue without being seen to be biased.

Because women think about technical things in a different way to men, I have to take this into account when planning and preparing lessons. Generally speaking, women need to have things explained to them, while men tend not to ask questions and just sit and listen to theory being expounded. Any jargon that is used during lectures is explained immediately unless an assumption is made that there is a basic understanding of the meaning of terms until a student stops me and asks for the meaning. Even where an assumption is made, perhaps due to the similarities of the subject with other units, questions are asked to ensure understanding is established.

I am aware that jargon can detract from information and any use of terminology needs to be relevant to the needs of students, particularly, vocational needs.

The computing/multimedia industry is traditionally dominated by white, middle class males as can be seen in the key players in this field, i.e., Microsoft, Intel, Apple, and hardware manufacturers. While there are effective strategies in place in the United States for providing equality of opportunity, there doesn’t appear to be that strong a commitment in this country. If there is, it is probably not explicitly documented. Advertising of computing and multimedia products also tend to feature white middle class men in a controlling position (with one exception, where a TV ad features a male ‘ignorant’ of how PCs work, yet when he sits down to one, he is not situated in a place where he can be taught by someone else). If women are portrayed, it is usually in a subservient role, such as receptionist/customer adviser, sitting at a PC with a man standing over her (the same applies to ‘black’ males sitting at a desk). The recent advertisements for America Online (AOL), where the digital woman comes out of the computer to assist a man also reinforces the stereotype of women as receptionist/customer service assistants/advisers as well as their being surrogate mothers/minders in the family setting (as in the advert, and I use the term advisedly). They are also seen as ‘sexy secretaries’ alongside the technology which is also ‘sexy’. The ‘woman’ is invisible until she is needed.

Students who come to (name of college) therefore to study multimedia technology are only too aware that gender/racial stereotyping exists in the industry and, therefore, I have to be sensitive to their needs.

Research indicates that women learn about technology in a different way from males. They tend to be more inquisitive, not afraid to ask questions when things are not clear in their minds. Males generally tend to listen passively and act like they know it all. Rarely do they ask questions for clarification. These differences are taken into consideration when planning lessons. If I am unsure about the definition of a particular term, I usually have a dictionary to hand, or provide feedback by e-mail. I also use ‘him/her’ quite a bit, although I would rather use a better inclusive term (is there one? Their?) Nevertheless, I do quite a lot of explaining of terms and other multimedia related information for the benefit of both sexes.

Some other points that were raised during discussions with colleagues were that quite possibly, sexism (for one) proceeds from the evolutionary process where men and women had distinct roles as hunters or gatherers. However, in other cultures, women do the hunting and much of the other hard work, while men gather around each other and have meetings!! In my classes, I need to be aware of male students dominating subjects of technical interest to them, and seek to bring the female students into the discussion, so rather than keeping the roles of men and women separate, I seek to integrate them in the demonstrations and discussions as the subjects do affect both sexes.

In this essay I have sought to discuss the various issues surrounding women and technology. I have also sought to discuss some concepts of feminism and, in particular, cyber-feminism, although space has not allowed me to do this. This is a rather large subject area and one which I will continue to be interested in. I have also considered my own approach to teaching multimedia to female students. The reflective approach to teaching means that I am able to take theoretical concepts and apply them to practical situations and evaluate my methods, with a view to improving and growing within my specialism.

References

1.     Linn, P (1987) Gender Stereotypes, Technology Stereotypes, in M. McNeil (Ed.), Gender and Expertise. London: Free Association Books Ltd.

2.     Braidottie, R (1996) Cyber-feminism with a Difference. Internet address: http://www.let.ruu.nl/womens_studies/rosi/cyberfem.htm

3.     Stanley, A (1982) Daughters of Isis, daughters of Demeter:when women sowed and reaped, in J. Rothschild (Ed.), Women, Technology and Innovation. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

4.     Truong, H (1993) Gender Issues in Online Communications. Internet address: http://cec.wustl.edu/~cs142/articles/GE.../gender_issues_in_online_communications--bawi

5.     Macdonald, M (1995) Representing Women: Myths of Femininity in the Popular Media. USA: Edward Arnold.

6.     Evans, C., and Gamman, L (1995) The gaze revisited, or reviewing queer viewing, in P. Burston, and C. Richardson (Eds.) A Queer Romance: Lesbians, Gay Men and Popular Culture. London: Routledge.

7.     Cameron, D (1992). Feminism and Linguistic Theory, 2nd Edition. Hampshire: The Macmillan Press.

8.     Mulvey, L (1975) Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, in Screen, Volume 16, Number 3, Autumn 1975.

9.           Barker, J, and Downing, H (1987) Word processing and the transformation of patriarchal relations in the office. In J, Wacjman and D. McKenzie (Eds), The Social Shaping of Technology. Open University Press.

10.        Zoonen, L.V. (1994). Feminist Media Studies. Sage Publications Ltd.

11.         Grudin, J. (1993). Interface: An evolving concept. Communications of the ACM, 36, (4), 111-119.

12.         Tannen, D. (1990) You Just Don't Understand. New York: Ballantine Books.

13.         Coates, J. (1993) Women, Men and Language, 2^nd Edition. Longman Group Ltd.

14.         Spender, D. (1995) Nattering on the Net: Women, Power and Cyberspace. Melbourne: Spinifex Press.